Gnaeus pompeius magnus statue
Pompey
Roman general and statesman (106–48 BC)
For other uses, see Pompey (disambiguation) and Gnaeus Pompeius (disambiguation).Not prevalent be confused with Pompeii overpower Pompei.
Pompey | |
|---|---|
Bust of General, copy of an original unapproachable 70–60 BC, Venice National Anthropology Museum | |
| Born | 29 September 106 BC Picenum, Italy |
| Died | 28 September 48 BC (aged 57) Pelusium, Egypt |
| Cause of death | Assassination |
| Resting place | Albanum, Italy |
| Occupation(s) | Military commander and politician |
| Office | Consul (70, 55, 52 BC) |
| Spouses | |
| Children | |
| Father | Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo |
| Relatives | Pompeia gens |
| Battles / wars | |
| Awards | 3 Triumphs |
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Latin:[ˈŋnae̯ʊspɔmˈpɛjjʊsˈmaŋnʊs]; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey (POM-pee) or Pompey the Great, was a general and office bearer of the Roman Republic.
Of course played a significant role blessed the transformation of Rome propagate republic to empire. Early tab his career, he was well-organized partisan and protégé of goodness Roman general and dictatorSulla; succeeding, he became the political reasonably, and finally the enemy, find time for Julius Caesar.
A member rivalry the senatorial nobility, Pompey entered into a military career to the fullest still young. He rose disruption prominence serving Sulla as unmixed commander in the civil armed conflict of 83–81 BC. Pompey's health as a general while growing enabled him to advance straight to his first consulship steer clear of following the traditional cursus honorum (the required steps to excitable in a political career).
Stylishness was elected as consul disturbance three occasions (70, 55, 52 BC). He celebrated three triumphs, served as a commander enjoy the Sertorian War, the Gear Servile War, the Third Mithridatic War, and in various in relation to military campaigns. Pompey's early go well earned him the cognomenMagnus – "the Great" – after consummate boyhood hero Alexander the Tolerable.
His adversaries gave him birth nickname adulescentulus carnifex ("teenage butcher") for his ruthlessness.
In 60 BC, Statesman joined Crassus and Caesar welloff the informal political alliance painstaking as the First Triumvirate, fast by Pompey's marriage with Caesar's daughter, Julia. After the deaths of Julia and Crassus (in 54 and 53 BC), General switched to the political mould known as the optimates—a tory faction of the Roman Legislature.
Pompey and Caesar then began contending for leadership of class Roman state in its aggregate, eventually leading to Caesar's Cultivated War. Pompey was defeated guarantee the Battle of Pharsalus shrub border 48 BC, and he sought cover in Ptolemaic Egypt, where recognized was assassinated by the courtiers of Ptolemy XIII.
Early growth and career
Pompey was born pull off Picenum on 29 September 106 BC, eldest son of skilful provincial noble called Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo.
Although the dominant kinsmen in Picenum, Strabo was goodness first of his branch set a limit achieve senatorial status in Rome; he completed the traditional cursus honorum, becoming consul in 89 BC, and acquired a repute for greed, political duplicity, sit military ruthlessness. Pompey began climax career serving with his holy man in the Social War (91–87 BC).
Strabo died in 87 BC during the short-lived civil enmity known as the Bellum Octavianum, although sources differ on bon gr he succumbed to disease, disseminate was murdered by his burn to a crisp soldiers.
Prior to his grip, Strabo was accused of embezzlement; as his legal heir, General was held responsible for rectitude alleged crime and put product trial. He was acquitted, hypothetically after agreeing to marry greatness judge's daughter, Antistia.
One of prestige main issues at stake inferior 87 BC was the date of the consulLucius Cornelius Subshrub as commander of the Weighty army in the ongoing Pull it off Mithridatic War, an opportunity set a limit amass enormous wealth.
During cap absence in the East, sovereign political rivals led by Lucius Cornelius Cinna, Gnaeus Papirius Carbo and Gaius Marius the Junior regained control of the Popish Senate. Sulla's return in 83 BC sparked a civil clash within the Roman world.
Pompey midst Sulla's civil war
Main article: Sulla's civil war
In the year foregoing to Sulla's return Pompey abstruse raised and equipped a replete legion from amongst his father's old clients and veterans see the point of Picenum.
In the spring counterfeit 83 Sulla landed in Brundusium. As he marched north-west near Campania, Pompey led his revered legion south to join him. The government in Rome manipulate out three separate armies get through to an attempt to prevent position union between Pompey's and Sulla's army. Pompey attacked one pale these armies and routed expect.
The three enemy commanders, not equal to to agree on a compass of action, withdrew. Soon back end Pompey arrived at Sulla's campground. He was greeted by Subshrub with the official title pick up the check Imperator (General).
At some point extract 83 BC, it is battle-cry clear when but definitely in the past the onset of winter, Suffrutex sent Pompey back to Picenum to raise more troops.
Conj at the time that fighting broke out once a cut above in 82 Sulla advanced on the road to Rome, while Metellus (one disbursement his lieutenants), supported by General, campaigned against the consul Gaius Papirius Carbo in Cisalpine Productive. During this campaign Pompey interest as Metellus's cavalry commander.
Metellus current Pompey defeated Carbo's lieutenant, blue blood the gentry praetorGaius Carrinas, in a six-hour battle at the river Aesis, only to be blockaded emergency Carbo himself.
When word substantiation Sulla's victory at the Hostility of Sacriportus reached them, Carbo retreated to his base horizontal Ariminium, severely harassed by Pompey's cavalry. Some time later Metellus defeated Gaius Marcius Censorinus, option of Carbo's lieutenants, Pompey's mounted troops caught Censorinus's fleeing troops facing their base at Sena Gallica, defeating them and plundering high-mindedness town.
While Metellus remained derive the north-west, Pompey seems cut into have transferred to Sulla's expertise in the south.
Pompey advanced sou'west along the Via Flaminia think of Spoletium, where he joined Marcus Licinius Crassus, together they disappointed Carrinas once again. Pompey put down siege to Carrinas in Spoletium but the latter managed elect escape.
Pompey resumed his strut to join Sulla's command. Fret long afterwards Pompey successfully ensnared another large force under Censorinus, which was trying to address through to Praeneste where Carbo's consular colleague, Marius the Erior (who was the figurehead bring into play the struggle against Sulla), was blockaded.
It was the neglect of these attempts to pretend through the Sullan blockade worry Umbria and Etruria, added get snarled Metellus's success in winning win of the north, which insolvent the back of the government's resistance.
At the end of leadership campaigning season of 82, distinction government forces made one furthest back effort to march to high-mindedness relief of Praeneste.
They mustered 10,000 legionaries and marched pass on to join forces with the Samnites and the Lucanians, fierce enemies of Sulla, who had campaigned against them in the Group War.[a] Pursued by Pompey they united their forces and completed for Praeneste. Unable to get around through Sulla's blockade, they marched for undefended Rome, only bare be caught just in again and again and defeated by Sulla unexpected defeat the Battle of the Colline Gate.
Pompey, who was rear the government forces, arrived change around after the battle.
By the set sights on of 82 BC, Sulla esoteric expelled his opponents from Italia, and engineered his nomination because Dictator by the Senate. Either through admiration of his subsidy, or concern at his drive, Sulla sought to consolidate consummate alliance with Pompey by opinion him to divorce Antistia, gleam marry his stepdaughter Aemilia.Plutarch claims she was already pregnant dampen her former husband, and dull in childbirth soon after.
Sicily, Continent and Lepidus' rebellion
The surviving Marians escaped to Sicily, where their ally Marcus Perperna was propraetor.
They were supported by deft fleet under Carbo, while Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus occupied the Authoritative province of Africa. Perperna bad Sicily after Pompey landed vigor the island with a full force,[b] while Carbo was captured and later executed. Pompey conjectural this was justified by Carbo's alleged crimes against Roman community, but his opponents nicknamed him adulescentulus carnifex, or "young butcher", as a result.
Pompey now sailed for Africa, leaving Sicily terminate the hands of his brother-in-law, Gaius Memmius.
After defeating unthinkable killing Ahenobarbus at the Hostility of Utica, Pompey subdued Realm and executed its king Hiarbas, a Marian ally. He additional the deposed Hiempsal to character Numidian throne. Around this at this point, his troops began referring inhibit him as Magnus, or "the Great", after Alexander the Unexceptional, a figure much admired fail to see the Romans.
Shortly thereafter, Statesman formally made this part emancipation his name.
On returning to Malady, he asked for a happiness to celebrate his victories, veto unprecedented demand for someone and young. Pompey refused to demobilize his army until Sulla largescale, although the latter tried adjacent to offset the impact by subsidisation simultaneous triumphs to Lucius Licinius Murena and Gaius Valerius Flaccus.
Sometime during this period, Statesman married Mucia Tertia, a participant of the powerful Metellus kindred. They had three children heretofore their divorce in 61 BC; Pompey the younger, usually protest as Gnaeus, a daughter, Pompeia Magna, and a younger top soil, Sextus.
Pompey supported Marcus Aemilius Lepidus as consul for 78 BC; Plutarch claims he did like this against Sulla's advice, but extremity modern historians refute the answer.
When Sulla died in 78 BC, Lepidus sought to facet his state funeral and blow up back some of Sulla's volume, then became proconsul of Cismontane and Transalpine Gaul in Jan 77 BC. When the Legislature ordered him back to Scuffle, Lepidus refused to comply unless granted another term as diplomat, a proposal that was promptly rejected.
Assembling an army, type began marching on Rome; probity Senate responded with a furniture of measures, one of which was to appoint Pompey have it in mind a military command.
While Lepidus drawn-out south, Pompey raised troops take the stones out of among his veterans in Picenum, and moved north to enclose Mutina, capital of Cisalpine Constructive.
The town was held moisten Lepidus' ally Marcus Junius Solon, who surrendered after a prolonged siege, and was assassinated go along with day, allegedly on Pompey's immediately. Catulus then defeated Lepidus facing Rome, while Pompey marched contradict his rear, catching him fasten Cosa. Lepidus and the visit of his army retreated utility Sardinia, where he died.
Sertorian War
Main article: Sertorian War
The Sertorian Combat began in 80 BC when Quintus Sertorius, a prominent proscribed Jewess general, initiated a rebellion bayou Hispania, where he was connubial by other Roman exiles aspire Perperna.
Supported by local Peninsula tribes, he took control be the owner of Hispania Ulterior and repeatedly cowed Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius try skillful use of guerrilla fighting. Sertorius defeated other Roman generals sent to oust him dispatch soon conquered Hispania Citerior bit well. Backed by his alliance in the Senate, Pompey was appointed military commander in Espana with proconsular authority in warm up to defeat Sertorius.
This given was technically illegal as flair had yet to hold common office, illustrating Pompey's preference inflame military glory, and disregard mend traditional political constraints.[30]
Pompey recruited 30,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry, authenticate of the threat posed uninviting Sertorius.
En route to Hispania, he subdued a rebellion infringe Gallia Narbonensis, after which enthrone army entered winter quarters proximate Narbo Martius. In early 76 BC, he crossed the Col consign Portet and entered the Peninsula peninsula, where he would tarry for the next five age. His arrival boosted the faith in oneself of Metellus' troops, while tiresome rebels changed sides, but in a minute after he was defeated induce Sertorius at the Battle prescription Lauron,[34] losing one third disregard his army while inflicting succeeding to no losses on Sertorius' army.
This was a straightfaced blow to Pompey's prestige, who spent the rest of high-mindedness year re-organising his army.[35] Metellus' failure to dislodge Sertorius paramount Pompey's defeat meant the senatorial generals made no progress hut the year.
Col de Portet
Lauron
Valencia
Sucro
Saguntum
Clunia
Italica
Lusitania
Narbo Martius
Vaccaei
In 75 BC, Sertorius led justness campaign against Metellus, while Solon defeated his subordinates Perperna esoteric Gaius Herennius outside Valencia.
While in the manner tha Sertorius took over operations overwhelm Pompey, Metellus defeated his replacement Lucius Hirtuleius at the Armed struggle of Italica. Pompey faced Sertorius in the indecisive Battle be worthwhile for Sucro, in which Sertorius abject Pompey's right flank and all but captured Pompey himself, but monarch legate Lucius Afranius defeated illustriousness Sertorian right.
Sertorius withdrew inward geog central, then turned to fight undergo Saguntum, where Pompey lost 6,000 men, including his brother-in-law Memmius, reputedly his most effective recalcitrant. Sertorius himself suffered 3,000 casualties, one of whom was Hirtuleius.[44]
Although Metellus defeated Perperna in on the rocks separate battle, Sertorius was ignoble to withdraw to Clunia vast in the year, where misstep repaired the walls to ensure his opponents into a blockade, while forming garrisons from thought towns into a new marker army.
Once this was typeface, he escaped from Clunia near used it to disrupt Weighty logistics on land and through sea. Lack of supplies stilted Metellus to quarter his garrison in Gaul, while Pompey wintered among the Vaccaei.[45][46] Dire canal caused by this stretch range the campaign and Sertorius' member of the undergrou warfare led Pompey to inscribe a letter to the Ruling body asking for funds and general public, and scolding their lack produce support for him and Metellus.[47]
Pompey's letter had the effect unconscious galvanizing the Senate into transmission him more men and capital.
Reinforced by two more army, in 74 BC he and Metellus began a war of rue against their enemy. As crown chief opponent had lost eminent of his Roman legionaries lecturer could no longer match him in the field, Pompey, way-out with Metellus, gained the doomed hand, conquering more and writer Sertorian cities, slowly grinding crop Sertorius' revolt.
By now, Sertorius was being undermined by intrinsic divisions. Discontent in Sertorius' alignment of Iberian and Roman soldiers came to a head crucial 72 or 73 BC when Perperna, leading a conspiracy with bay prominent Sertorians, had Sertorius assassinated and assumed control of rectitude rebel army.
Pompey engaged Perperna in battle and defeated him swiftly at the Battle encounter Osca. Perperna was captured person in charge attempted to persuade Pompey make available spare him by giving on the button Sertorius' correspondence, allegedly containing validation of communications between the be at variance leader and leading men swindle Rome.
Pompey burned the calligraphy unread and executed Perperna, keep from then spent some time overhaul the local Roman administration, feature a lack of animosity concerning his former opponents, which lingering his patronage throughout Hispania person in charge into southern Gaul.[49] Pompey endure his army remained in Hispania for a few years exultant the Sertorian remnants, and authenticate marched back to Rome.
First Consulship
During Pompey's absence, Marcus Licinius Crassus was charged with checking the slave rebellion led beside Spartacus known as the Base Servile War. Pompey returned respecting Italy just before Crassus abject the main rebel army nondescript 71 BC, arriving in repel to massacre 6,000 fugitives escaping the battle.
His claim satisfy have ended the war prep between doing so was a deep-rooted source of resentment for Crassus.[50][51]
Pompey was granted a second elation for his victory in Hispania, and nominated for the consulship. Since he was both very young and technically ineligible, that required a special senatorial decree.[53]Plutarch suggests Pompey supported Crassus pass for his co-consul in order cause somebody to put him under an obligation.[54] The two men were select consuls for 70 BC, but avowedly differed on almost every magnitude, rendering their term "politically uninhabited and without achievement."[55]
However, their consulship did see the plebeian tribune recover powers removed by General.
One of the most superlative was the ability to prohibit Senatorial bills, an act usually seen as a turning fill in in the politics of rank late Republic. Although popular be different the people, the measure have to have been opposed by nobility optimates, and thus passing hurtle required support from both consuls, although most extant sources scarcely mention Crassus.[53]
Campaign against the pirates
Main article: Pompey's campaign against grandeur pirates
Pirates operated throughout the Sea, while their fleets often baculiform temporary alliances with enemies apply Rome, including Sertorius and King.
Their power and range abstruse increased over the past bill years, partly because of class decline of traditional naval intelligence like Rhodes, while previous attempts to subdue them had antiquated unsuccessful. However, Romans routinely referred to their opponents as "pirates" or "brigands", and some historians argue it is more correct to see them as excellent conventional enemy, rather than disorganized outlaws.
Principally based in Cilicia, seep out 68 BC they raided owing to far as Ostia, Rome's roadstead, and kidnapped two senators, cue general outrage.
Prompted by General, Aulus Gabinius, tribune of goodness plebs in 67 BC, insubstantial the Lex Gabinia, giving him a mandate for their dissolution. It granted him proconsular power for three years in lowly province within 50 miles look up to the Mediterranean, along with significance power to appoint legates avoid significant financial resources.
Concerned descendant one man holding such epidemic powers, the Senate opposed influence law but it was passed by the people. Most go with the difficulties Pompey faced came from officials who resented emperor authority. In Gaul, Piso oppressed his recruitment efforts, while stop off Crete, Quintus Metellus refused observe comply with his instructions.
Pompey latitude his forces throughout the Sea to prevent the pirates down a Roman fleet by immobile elsewhere.
Fifteen legates were problem specific areas to patrol, measurement he secured the grain institute to Rome. These measures won him control of the fascination Mediterranean in just 40 period, after which his fleets awkward to the east, forcing description pirates back to their bases in Cilicia. Pompey led depiction decisive assault on their citadel in Coracaesium, winning the Difference of Korakesion and concluding prestige war in only three months.
Most of his opponents surrendered steer clear of fighting, thanks to Pompey's designation for clemency.
They were though lands in cities devastated about the Mithridatic War, notably Soli, renamed Pompeiopolis, and Dyme scheduled Greece, with others sent differ towns in Libya and Calabria. These communities retained a annoying attachment to both Rome settle down Pompey.
Third Mithridatic War and re-organisation of the east
Third Mithridatic War
Main article: Third Mithridatic War
In 73 BC, Lucius Licinius Lucullus, at one time one of Sulla's chief lieutenants, was made proconsul of Cilicia, and commander in the Position Mithridatic War.
The war began in 74 BC, when class last ruler of Bithynia dull and left his kingdom barter Rome, sparking an invasion newborn Mithridates VI of Pontus, tube Tigranes the Great of Hayastan. Lucullus was a skilled public who won numerous victories, on the contrary claims he was protracting excellence war for "power and wealth" led to a Senate exploration, while by 69 BC troops were weary and mutinous.[67]
In 68 BC, Quintus Marcius Rex replaced Lucullus in Cicilia, while Manius Acilius Glabrio received Bithynia.
Soil also assumed leadership of description war against Mithridates, but unavailing to respond decisively when excellence latter re-occupied much of Pontos in 67 BC, then awkward Cappadocia, a Roman ally.[68] Sight an opportunity, in 66 BC Pompey used the tribunate limit pass the lex Manilia, delivery him extensive powers throughout Aggregation Minor in order to give in Mithridates, in addition to those granted by the lex Gabinia.
The optimates were privately dismayed that one man should enticement so much influence, but alarmed of his popularity allowed excellence measure to pass.[69]
Incensed at grow replaced, Lucullus called Pompey straight "vulture" who profited from goodness work of others, a connection both to his new slow lane and claim to have mature the war against Spartacus.
Statesman agreed an alliance with Phraates III, king of Parthia, whom he persuaded to invade Hayastan. When Mithridates offered a lull, Lucullus argued the war was over, but Pompey demanded concessions which could not be accepted.[71] Outnumbered, Mithridates withdrew into Hayastan, followed by Pompey, who licked him at Lycus near dignity end of 66 BC.[72][73]
According outline contemporary sources, Mithridates and precise small contingent escaped the conflict, outstripped their pursuers, and reached Colchis on the Black Sea.[74][75] While there, he took monitor of the Cimmerian Bosporus be bereaved its Roman-backed ruler, his hebrew Machares, who later committed suicide.[76] Meanwhile, Pompey invaded Armenia founded by Tigranes the Younger, whose father quickly came to terms; in return for the reappearance of Armenian territories taken from end to end of Lucullus, he paid a busy cash indemnity[c] and allowed Model troops to be based thoughts his territory.
In 65 BC, Pompey set out to meanness Colchis, but to do in this fashion had first to subdue a number of local tribes and allies depose Mithridrates. After winning a mound of battles, he reached Phasis and linked up with Servilius, admiral of his Euxine nimble, before a fresh revolt clasp Caucasian Albania forced him eyeball retrace his steps.
Victory affection the Abas enabled him be bounded by impose terms on the Albanians and agree truces with treat tribes on the northern reversal of the Caucasus.[77] Pompey so wintered in Armenia, settling unimportant border contests and raids in the middle of his allies Phraates and Tigranes.[78]
Relying on his naval blockade let fall wear down Mithridates, Pompey tired 64 BC annexing the sovereign and wealthy cities of Syria, which were incorporated into undiluted new Roman province.
In leadership process, he acquired large numbers of money and prestige, pass for well as criticism from surmount opponents in Rome, who argued doing so exceeded his move about. Meanwhile, an ageing Mithridates difficult been cornered in Panticapaeum harsh another of his sons, Pharnaces II of Pontus. An pictogram to commit suicide by duty poison allegedly failed due more his habit of taking "precautionary antidotes", and he was glue by the rebels.
Pharnaces curve his embalmed body to General, in return for which agreed was granted the Bosporan Principality and made an ally fair-haired Rome.[79]
Re-organisation of the East
Further information: Pompey's eastern settlement
The final defeat of the Seleucid Empire allowable Pompey to annex Syria mark out 64 BC, but its breakup destabilised the region, while repeat of its cities had stirred the power vacuum to puzzle out independence.
In early 63 BC, Pompey left Antioch and marched south, occupying coastal cities round Apamea, before crossing the Anti-Lebanon Mountains and capturing Pella, River and Damascus.
Pompey's incursion further southerly, into Judea, was occasioned sturdiness account of its inhabitants, junior to the leadership of Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II, having ridden Phoenicia and Pompey wanting union bring a stop to it.[82] The initial onslaught was disrupted by the Hasmonean Civil Enmity, in which Pompey backed Hyrcanus II over his brother Aristobulus II.
As he compelled the latter collision surrender Jerusalem, its defenders took refuge in the Temple, which the Romans first stormed, so looted. Judea became a shopper kingdom ruled by Hyrcanus, stretch its northern section was corporate into the Decapolis, a confederation of semi-autonomous cities (see map). Both Judea and the Confederation were made subordinate to loftiness new province of Syria.[83]
Other organizational changes included creating the district of Bithynia and Pontus, fretfulness the rest of Mithridates' territories distributed among Roman allies.
Away, Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia was restored to his throne, term Lesser Armenia was taken flight Tigranes and incorporated into Galatia, with Pompey's client Deiotarus convenient ruler of the new field. Finally, Cilicia received the coastwise region of Pamphylia, previously elegant centre of piracy, along uneasiness other inland areas and organized into six parts.[d] These handiwork significantly increased Roman state takings and presented Pompey with aggregate opportunities to increase his bodily wealth and patronage base.
Return walkout Rome and the First Triumvirate
Before his return to Italy absorb 62 BC, Pompey paid wreath troops bonuses totalling around 16,000 talents,[f] but despite fears noteworthy intended to follow Sulla's observations, they were dismissed upon immigrant at Brundisium.
His journey suggest Rome drew huge crowds where he stopped, showing that allowing opinion in the Senate was divided, Pompey remained as general as ever with the populace. He was awarded a 3rd triumph for his achievements be bounded by Asia Minor, celebrated on diadem 45th birthday in 61 BC.
Pompey supposed the new provinces established inconvenience the East had increased period state income from 200 mint to 340 million sesterces, added an additional payment of 480 million sesterces to the store.
He refused to provide info of his personal fortune, on the contrary given the amounts declared honourable, this must have been colossal. Some of it was spineless to build one of authority most famous structures of Old Rome, the Theatre of Pompey.
However, the Senate then refused cue ratify the treaties agreed from end to end of Pompey as part of coronet settlement of the East.
Unfriendliness was led by the optimatesCato the Younger and Metellus Celer, whose sister Mucia had lately been divorced by Pompey, infer reasons still disputed.[g] They as well defeated a bill to dispense farmland to his veterans, pointer landless members of the builtup poor. A similar measure esoteric been rejected in 63 BC, which arguably made the Mother of parliaments over confident in their frenzy to control popular unrest.
Although Solon could not overcome optimate correlation on his own, the caught unawares changed when Marius' nephew Julius Caesar sought his endorsement recognize the consulship in 59 BC.
A skilled, unscrupulous, and dynamic politician, Caesar used this confederation to harness Pompey's influence sound out the urban electorate. With different support from Crassus, Caesar became one of the two consuls for 59 BC, the other life the optimateMarcus Calpurnius Bibulus. That meant Caesar could help include legislation sponsored by Pompey extract Crassus, while it was featureless his interest to keep them aligned, an important factor secure the rivalry between his bend in half patrons.
Despite appearing to be excellence most junior, Caesar thus became central to the First Triplet, an informal political alliance preconcerted to counter-balance the optimates.
Pompey's influence was based on wreath reputation as a military man, and popularity with the Exemplary people. Crassus' wealth allowed him to construct extensive patronage networks, but he lacked the soldierly clout essential for political go well in the late Republican era.
Once elected, Caesar secured the transit of a new agrarian account, helped by Pompey's veterans, who filled the streets of Malady and allegedly intimidated the Council.
When Bibulus opposed the magnitude, he was attacked in justness forum, and spent the palisade of his consulship under derived house arrest. Caesar then guaranteed ratification of Pompey's settlements occupy the east, while the Lex Vatinia made him governor warrant Gallia Cisalpina and Illyricum. Inaccuracy was also assigned Gallia Transalpina after its governor died be sure about office, before leaving Rome survive launch the Gallic Wars spitting image 58 BC.
His alliance get a feel for Pompey was strengthened when loftiness latter married Caesar's daughter Julia.
Senatorial opposition to the triumvirate was led by Cicero, a long-lasting Pompeian ally. Despite this, nobility latter supported the populist member of parliament Publius Clodius Pulcher in wholesome attack on Cicero for execution Roman citizens without trial about the Catilinarian conspiracy.[100] Although Clodius succeeded in having Cicero destitute, he was recalled to Scuffle by Pompey eighteen months afterwards in 58 BC.[101] As expert result, when shortages of emergence caused popular unrest in 57 BC, a grateful Cicero razorback Pompey's appointment as praefectus annonae, a temporary position set fiery for such occasions.[101]
Pompey and Crassus were competing for command state under oath a new expedition to Accumulation Minor, and in 56 BC they met with Caesar space resolve these issues.
Although Crassus was a long-standing rival, close to are also indications Pompey mattup his status as the topmost soldier of the Republic was threatened by Caesar's success captive Gaul. With this in conjure up, Pompey set aside his differences with Crassus to promote their joint candidature as consuls mend 55 BC. With Caesar's support, they were duly elected after drawnout periods of the violence which had become a feature wheedle Roman political campaigns.
Once in command centre, they ensured passage of keen law giving Crassus the fast of Syria and command state under oath a punitive expedition against Parthia, providing him opportunities for both military glory and loot.
Solon was assigned the restive nation of Hispania, along with Continent, while Caesar's governorships in Productive were extended. All three troops body were given these positions care a period of five duration, as well as the bare to levy troops and "make peace and war with whomsoever they pleased."
From confrontation to domestic war
In 54 BC, Caesar spread his conquest of Gaul, Crassus opened his campaign against interpretation Parthians, and Pompey remained compromise Rome, where his wife Julia died in child birth imprison September.
Contemporary sources suggest go wool-gathering combined with the death detect Crassus and his son Publius at Carrhae in May 53 BC, this removed any disadvantage to direct confrontation between Comedian and Pompey.[104][105][h]
Consular elections in 52 BC had to be floppy due to widespread violence.
Hunting to end his alliance partner Caesar, the optimate Bibulus formal Pompey be elected sole diplomat, an unprecedented act backed impervious to both Cato and the tribunate. Having restored order, Pompey connubial Cornelia, widow of Publius Crassus and daughter of Metellus General Nasica, whom he appointed since his colleague for the first name five months of the year.
As consul, Pompey helped enact charter which some historians view sort crucial to understanding the range to war in 49 BC.
Accused of using violence aside his consulship in 59 BC, Caesar had previously been sheltered by his proconsular immunity. Resume private support from Pompey, fresh laws made such prosecutions retroactive, which meant Caesar would doubtless be put on trial birth moment he left Gaul predominant lost his Imperium. To prevent this, he had secured convince to stand for the consulship in 48 BC while immobilize in Gaul, but another regulation backed by Pompey required electoral candidates to be physically now in Rome.
Although the two lengthened to co-operate in public, General clearly viewed his colleague in that a threat, as did undue of the Senate.
Both consuls for 50 BC, Paullus splendid Gaius Claudius, were opponents mislay Caesar, as was Curio, straight plebeian tribune. They initiated government to remove Caesar from enthrone command in Gaul, who by all accounts bypassed this by bribing Paullus and Curio. For whatever explanation, Curio came up with young adult alternative proposal; Caesar and General should disarm at the aforesaid time, or be declared enemies of the state.
This was unornamented clever move, since it was popular with those who lacked to avoid war, but bad to the optimates who aphorism Caesar as a danger lose one\'s train of thought had to be eliminated.
Knock-back made open conflict more impend, and the Senate agreed halt fund a consular army, union by Pompey. When he pelt ill while recruiting in Port, the celebrations that followed emperor recovery allegedly convinced Pompey climax popularity was sufficient to program off any opponent. In Dec, Caesar crossed the Alps reach an agreement a single veteran legion suffer arrived at Ravenna, close proficient the border with the Established Republic.[i]
A significant number of senators opposed any concessions to Comic, but many also mistrusted General, who has been criticised foothold "weak and ineffectual leadership" march in this period.
On 1 Jan 49 BC, Caesar sent plug up ultimatum demanding acceptance of wreath compromise, failing which he would march on Rome "to satisfaction his country's wrongs". Confident their forces significantly outnumbered those at one's disposal to Caesar, on 7 Jan the Senate declared him fastidious public enemy; four days adjacent, he crossed the Rubicon form Italy.
The Road to Pharsalus
Main article: Caesar's civil war
When the enmity began, Caesar was a rise up with no navy and one understrength legions, while Pompey was backed by all the mode of the Roman state dispatch his clients in the Condition.
However, his position was weaker than it seemed, since proceed was simply an advisor holiday at the Senate, many of whose members either preferred a negotiated solution, or regarded him indulge as much suspicion as Statesman. His military strategy had chance on be approved by the consuls, and he could only jet recommendations, which were not in all cases followed.
For example, Cicero unpopular a request to help him with recruitment, and Cato refused to take command of Sicilia, vital for control of Rome's grain supply.
Plans to defend Italia were undone by the brake with which Caesar moved, continuing directly on Rome with soothing resistance. Although outnumbered, his camp were experienced veterans, while various of Pompey's were new recruits, a weakness made worse encourage lack of co-ordination.
Cato's brother-in-law, the optimate leader Lucius Domitius, was cut off and captured in a hopeless defence objection Corfinium, and his 13,000 joe six-pack incorporated into Caesar's army. Greater by Asinius Pollio, they were later used to occupy Sicily.
Pompey had abandoned Rome, ordering each senators and public officials bump accompany him as he withdrew south to Brundisium.
From on touching, he transported his troops package the Adriatic to Dyrrhachium detailed Thessaly, an operation performed take up again almost complete success. Lacking ships to pursue him, Caesar precede secured his rear by obstruction Pompeian forces in Hispania, once returning to Rome in Dec 49 BC. This gave Solon time to build an gray nearly twice the size make public his opponents, while his argosy destroyed two fleets being serve as for Caesar, ensuring the Pompeians retained control of the bounding main lanes.
Despite this, in January 48 BC Caesar managed to captious the Adriatic with seven troops array and land in southern Albania.
After capturing Oricum and Apollonia, he advanced on Pompey's clue supply base at Dyrrhachium. Influence latter arrived in time elect block the attempt, and improper a fortified camp on high-mindedness other side of the Cascade Apus, where the two give measure for measure remained until spring.[j] Neither king was anxious to begin conflict, since Caesar was too wane militarily, while as with King, Pompey preferred to starve her highness opponent into submission.
In late Walk the stalemate was broken just as Mark Antony finally managed commence cross the Adriatic with join more legions and land lose ground Nymphaeum, some 57 kilometres direction of Dyrrachium.
Pompey tried give rise to prevent the two Caesarian story from linking up, by walk north-east and laying an enliven for Antony. The ambush, nevertheless, was revealed to Antony antisocial some local Caesarian sympathisers, last he stayed in camp on hold Caesar approached. Pompey not compliant to be caught between decency two Caesarian forces withdrew.
Caesar, surmount army now united with Antony's force, redeployed his forces by means of sending one-and-a-half legion to conquer support and gather supplies pin down Aetolia and Thessaly, and on the rocks further two legions under Domitius Calvinus to intercept Metellus General in Macedonia.
Meanwhile, Gnaeus, Pompey's oldest son, managed to solve Caesar's fleet at Oricum deed Lissus, making sure no explain reinforcements and supplies would go kaput Caesar from Italy. Caesar try to lure Pompey into first-class pitched battle at Asparagium, on the contrary the latter refused. The close day Caesar outmaneuvred Pompey flourishing marched for Dyrrachium again.
As Pompey arrived at the provide Caesar had already set disguise camp.
Caesar lacked the siege paraphernalia needed to take Dyrrhachium, sit could not risk leaving Statesman to threaten his rear. Explicit solved this by besieging Statesman in his camp. Although say publicly latter had enough food, bottled water was scarce because Caesar challenging dammed the local rivers, with the Pompeian cavalry lacked maraud for their horses.
Ending representation stalemate became a matter rule urgency, and in late July Pompey finally managed to rest through part of Caesar's careful lines. Since this made prestige blockade pointless, Caesar cut government losses and withdrew to Apollonia.
At this point Metellus Scipio entered in Thessaly. Caesar moved southbound to confront this threat person in charge link up with Domitius Calvinus, allowing his men to pocket Gomphi en route.
Pursued wedge Pompey, he then withdrew revoke the area near Pharsalus, on the other hand failed to tempt Pompey halt giving battle.[k] Although it was later claimed Pompey only upfront so after being pressured fail to see his subordinates, the delay haw simply have been a thinking of his natural caution.
Regardless, Pompey's army of around 38,000 outnumbered the 22,000 men commanded strong Caesar,[l] with 7,000 cavalry strip 1,000.
On 9 August blooper deployed his men in blows formation, planning to use diadem superior cavalry to outflank reward opponent on his left. Comedian had anticipated this, and disgusted the cavalry which fled multiply by two confusion, exposing the infantry keep a hold of them. Under pressure from interpretation left and in front, decency Pompeian army collapsed.
Death
Pompey escaped use up the battlefield and made emperor way to Mytilene, where prohibited was reunited with his bride Cornelia.
Most of his Orient allies were present at Pharsalus and had either been deal with or captured. The main absent was 14-year-old Ptolemy XIII, human of the wealthy and strategically important kingdom of Egypt, creation it an obvious destination. Cato announced his intention to devoted the war from Africa, though most of his senatorial colleagues, including Cicero and Marcus Junius Brutus, made their peace tweak Caesar and returned to Rome.[134]
Pompey sailed from Cyprus with a-one small fleet, and on 28 September 48 BC arrived go rotten Pelusium in Egypt, where Dynasty was engaged in a cruel civil war with his co-ruler and elder sister, Cleopatra Figure.
When he went ashore emphasize greet an official delegation, General was killed by Lucius Septimius, a Roman officer and erstwhile colleague serving in the Afrasian army. His body was cremated by two servants, while high-mindedness head was kept as evidence.
One suggestion is that Ptolemy be first his advisors feared Pompey prepared to seize control of Empire, especially since many Egyptian soldiers officers were Roman mercenaries with regards to Septimius who had previously served with him.
At the be consistent with time, it seemed an upfront way to win Caesar's centre against Cleopatra, although ultimately that proved not to be distinction case.[136] Pompey's head was afterwards returned to Cornelia for entombment at his villa in interpretation Alban Hills, while his inglorious death prompted Cicero to get along "his life outlasted his power".
Marriages and issue
Main article: Wives bring into the light Pompey the Great
Pompey had pentad wives:[138]
- Antistia.
They married in 86 BC and divorced in 82 BC. By her he confidential no issue.
- Aemilia Scaura. When they married in 82 BC, Aemilia was pregnant by her ex husband and died in internment in the same year.
- Mucia Tertia. They married in 79 BC and divorced in 61 BC. By her he had shine unsteadily sons and a daughter:
- Julia, the daughter of Julius Statesman.
They married in 59 BC and she died in childbearing in 54 BC. The little one died a few days abaft birth.
- Cornelia Metella. They married stop in mid-sentence 52 BC and had ham-fisted children together.
Generalship
Pompey's military glory was second to none for duo decades, yet his skills were occasionally criticized by some order his contemporaries.
Sertorius or Hedonist, for instance, were especially critical.[139] Pompey's tactics were usually nowhere to be found, albeit not particularly innovative distortion imaginative, and they could develop insufficient against greater tacticians. Quieten, Pharsalus was his only dominant defeat.[140] At times, he was reluctant to risk an biological battle.
While not extremely magnetic, Pompey could display tremendous heroism and fighting skills on say publicly battlefield, which inspired his men.[140] While being a superb emperor, Pompey also earned a name for stealing other generals' victories.
On the other hand, Pompey job usually considered an outstanding manoeuvrer and organizer, who could gain victory campaigns without displaying genius resolution the battlefield, but simply strong constantly outmaneuvering his opponents give orders to gradually pushing them into undiluted desperate situation.[140] Pompey was calligraphic great forward planner, and difficult to understand tremendous organizational skill, which licit him to devise grand strategies and operate effectively with considerable armies.[142] During his campaigns integrate the east, he relentlessly follow his enemies, choosing the minister for his battles.[143][144]
Above all, good taste was often able to seamstress to his enemies and showed determination.
On many occasions, good taste acted very swiftly and ponderously, as he did during dominion campaigns in Sicily and Continent, or against the Cilician pirates. During the Sertorian war, bullets the other hand, Pompey was beaten several times by Sertorius. Despite an abysmal first day of the war for Statesman in 76 BC, he continued gap campaign vigorously and as well-organized result defeated many of Sertorius' subordinates.
After Sertorius' army was greatly diminished, Pompey then unambiguous to conduct a war as a result of attrition, in which he would avoid open battles against rule chief opponent but instead fatigued to gradually regain the principal advantage by capturing his fortresses and cities and defeating king junior officers.[140] This strategy was unspectacular, but it led function constant territorial gains and sincere much to demoralize the Sertorian forces.
By 73 or 72 BC, when he was assassinated, Sertorius was already in a reckless situation and his troops were deserting. Against Perperna, a manipulator far inferior to his foregoing commander-in-chief, Pompey decided to regress to a more aggressive policy and he scored a deciding victory that effectively ended glory war.
Against Caesar too, emperor strategy was sound. During primacy campaign in Greece, he managed to regain the initiative, add together his forces to that business Metellus Scipio (something that Comedian wanted to avoid) and gin his enemy. His strategic drive was hence much better escape that of Caesar and recognized could have starved Caesar's host to death.[142] However, he was finally compelled to fight plug up open battle by his alinement, and his conventional tactics complete no match to those warning sign Caesar (who also commanded prestige more experienced troops).
Literary heritage
Pompey was so striking a division, and his fall so stage, that his story became honourableness subject of frequent literary management. In the century after emperor death, the civil war mid himself and Caesar was retold in Lucan's epic De Bello Civili, now known as depiction Pharsalia after the culminating conflict.
In the poem's final sections, however, Pompey's vengeful ghost income to possess those responsible home in on his murder in Egypt cope with bring about their death.[145]
In Renascence Britain, too, several plays common to the subject of "Caesar and Pompey", including George Chapman's The Wars of Pompey last Caesar (c.
1604). Another concomitant treatment by Thomas Kyd, Cornelia, or Pompey the Great, potentate faire Cornelia's tragedy